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This Issue Paper is based on a desk review of research carried out on Transnational Organised Crime at Sea, with particular emphasis on existing UNODC materials concerning transnational organized crime at sea and
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. It also captures discussions held in an expert group meeting Vienna held in November 2012 and serves as a background document to the recommendations of the expert meeting. The paper examines piracy and armed robbery at sea, migrant smuggling and trafficking in persons, drug trafficking, organized crime within the fishing industry and oil bunkering, both in terms of the specific activities and the common challenges and intertwined elements of these crimes.

The 1995 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (the Code) provides a set of international standards for responsible behaviour in the fisheries sector with to ensure the effective conservation, management and development of living aquatic resources, with due respect for the ecosystem and biodiversity. The Code is non-binding document and provides the framework for the development of other voluntary instruments including guidelines and international plans of action.

This is the report of an Independent Panel tasked with developing a model for improved governance by RFMOs. The mandate of the Panel was to develop a model for improved governance by RFMOs based on an analysis of the requirements of international fisheries instruments and best practice in their application. The basic intention was that the model should not only be capable of providing guidance for assessing RFMO performance in relation to international fishery instruments and identifying possible strategies for improving performance but should also address important new and emerging issues of concern.

This report considers obstacles to, and opportunities for, more effective action to address IUU fishing and the role the role that transnational organised crime plays in the IUU fishing industry. This report examines the experiences in five countries: Indonesia; Thailand; Vietnam; Tanzania; and South Africa and examines the approaches taken by those states and the successes and failures of their policies.

The PEW Charitable Trusts discusses best practice ways to monitor transshipment in an effort to identify and mitigate IUU fishing. This information sheet recommends and outlines best practices actions relating to reporting and monitoring transshipment events and the sharing of transshipment data among relevant parties.

Greenpeace undertook a research project to understand the extent of misuse of AIS by the global reefer industry. Greenpeace identified and studied 416 reefers that make up the majority of vessels that have transshipped at sea in the period 2017-2019. From these vessels, Greenpeace found multiple instances of violations of AIS, with proof in adopting 'flags of convenience' (most commonly, Panama), the behavior of vessel interactions with 'encounter' and 'loitering,' and transshipment in areas that are unregulated or pose a threat to marine habitats. The continued violations of AIS by reefers, according to Greenpeace, calls for a robust Global Ocean Treaty that will stop these harmful activities and protect our oceans.

This paper discusses the problem of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing on the high seas and acknowledges increasing restrictions put into place to attempt to deal with the problem. The paper reports on recent trends in the numbers of fishing vessels flying Flags of Convenience, discusses at-sea transshipment and resupply fleets (a key aspect of IUU fishing), recommends specific measures to manage at-sea transshipment and resupply and; place these recommendations within the context of international actions necessary to implement the UN FAO International Plan of Action on IUU Fishing.

This study uses AIS data to identify when and where transshipment occurs, which fisheries and fleets are most involved in the practice, and what proportion of the high-seas catch is transshipped versus landed directly, altogether giving a detailed account of global seafood supply chains. Among many other findings, the study finds that fishing in EEZs was mainly landed directly, but on high seas, transshipment largely predominated. Fleet usage also differed with trawlers mainly used in EEZs and longline fishing dominated at high seas. The study ultimately shows how the type of catch and its location shape the infrastructure of the supply food chain involved (i.e. a history of poor monitoring, low compliance, and weak enforcement correlates with a large number of transshipments in Russian waters.) The findings of this study can aid in identifying where illicit activity can be happening and what warrants more monitoring, control, and surveillance.

In this research study, Global Fishing Watch uses AIS information to identify where transshipment can be happening and who is doing it. About 42 percent of potential rendezvous (what is identified through AIS data to track transshipments) occur on the high seas, with the rest happening within the EEZs of different nations–especially Russia. It is concerning, however, that those areas with higher levels of reported IUU fishing correlate with areas of high potential rendezvous. With such a high level of transshipments occurring on high seas, the global community could not only benefit from using AIS data to identify illegal transshipments but must also cooperate to address lax oversight and control.

This paper recognises seafood sustainability and human rights challenges associated with transshipment at sea
and seeks to identify global patterns in order to address these issues. Transshipment at sea, the offloading of catch from a fishing vessel to a refrigerated vessel far from port, can obscure the actual source of the catch. The authors analysed over 10,000 instances of fishing vessels loitering long enough to engage in transshipment of this, roughly 47% of the events occur on the high seas and 42% involve vessels flying flags of convenience.

This report highlights the main hotspots for transshipping at sea noting that almost 40% of all likely transshipment occurred on the high seas, beyond country boundaries. Identifying three significant those being outside the EEZ of Peru, in a high seas pocket north of Russia and Norway and an area close to the EEZ boundary of Argentina, the authors make a number of recommendations to be implemented at the global level in an effort to curb IUU fishing.

This report reviews the transshipment measures of the five tuna RFMOs plus SEAFO and CCAMLR. Although each tuna RFMO generally prohibits at-sea transshipment except for large-scale longline fishing vessels with 100% observer coverage on the carrier vessels, their relationship, the report finds, with other MCS measures leaves multiple gaps and shortfalls. Through the analysis of non-tuna RFMO transshipment measures in critical comparison to the many shortfalls found with existing measures in tuna RFMOs, the report gives detailed recommendations to improve and strengthen tuna RFMO transshipment regulations.

In this research study, Global Fishing Watch uses AIS information to identify where transshipment can be happening and who is doing it. About 42 percent of potential rendezvous (what is identified through AIS data to track transshipments) occur on the high seas, with the rest happening within the EEZs of different nations–especially Russia. It is concerning, however, that those areas with higher levels of reported IUU fishing correlate with areas of high potential rendezvous. With such a high level of transshipments occurring on high seas, the global community could not only benefit from using AIS data to identify illegal transshipments but must also cooperate to address lax oversight and control. This revised report improves on the methodology of the earlier finding in February 2017.

This paper highlights the use of transhipment activities to hide IUU fishing. Transshipment allows fishing vessels to stay at sea; sometimes for years at a time and has been linked to transnational crime and human rights violations. The Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (PSMA) is a binding international treaty of the United Nations’ (UN) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
With growing participation in the PSMA AIS data can be utilised to better inform the decision making process and implementation. This paper discusses the methodology and application of AIS which offers reliable and accessible information regarding port visits that has previously been difficult to obtain.

This report reviews the transshipment measures of the five tuna RFMOs plus SEAFO and CCAMLR. Although each tuna RFMO generally prohibits at-sea transshipment except for large-scale longline fishing vessels with 100% observer coverage on the carrier vessels, the report discusses the relationship with other MCS measures leaves multiple gaps and shortfalls. Through the analysis of non-tuna RFMO transshipment measures in critical comparison, the report gives detailed recommendations to improve and strengthen tuna RFMO transshipment regulations.

Transshipment at sea is a practice where refrigerated cargo vessels, also known as reefers, meet with fishing boats to exchange catch, fresh water, food and crew. Transshipment can greatly extend the time a vessel can spend at sea fishing. However, it compromises the transparency pertaining to environmental and social sustainability within the seafood industry as catch, both legal and illegal, from several fishing vessels are mixed onboard the reefer. Satellite-based AIS data and published data on the distribution of tuna was used to map tuna presence, spawning areas, and diversity. This study aims to connect transshipment vessels and distribution patterns of seven tuna species by correlating tuna distribution and spawning grounds with reefer activity.

The Committee on Fisheries (COFI) of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) requested an in-depth study of transshipment to develop international guidelines based on best practices. The FAO fisheries operations and technology branch took up the assignment and began its work in 2019. The team conducted a global study to shed light on current regulations, practices, and control of transshipment to assess the status quo. The study was finalized in 2020 and provides the most comprehensive foundation (based on a risk-based approach) for the development of international guidelines on transshipment, highlighting areas of persistent and emerging concern.

An introductory guide to longline fishing vessels to support MCS officers undertaking longline vessel inspections. While this is a standalone tool focussed on longline fishing, it has been developed as part of series of similar introductory guides on other major industrial fishing methods and related operations, as well as complementary material on fishing vessel inspection considerations. This guide includes how to recognize longline vessels, how they operate and operational MCS considerations.

An introductory guide to pole and line fishing vessels to support MCS officers undertaking pole and line vessel inspections. While this is a standalone tool focussed on pole and line fishing, it has been developed as part of series of similar introductory guides on other major industrial fishing methods and related operations, as well as complementary material on fishing vessel inspection considerations. This guide includes how to recognize pole and line vessels, how they operate and operational MCS considerations.

An introductory guide to purse seine fishing vessels to support MCS officers undertaking purse seine vessel inspections. While this is a standalone tool focussed on purse seine fishing, it has been developed as part of series of similar introductory guides on other major industrial fishing methods and related operations, as well as complementary material on fishing vessel inspection considerations. This guide includes how to recognize purse seine vessels, how they operate and operational MCS considerations.