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This report presents the first study to use automatic identification system (AIS) data to examine the risks of unregulated fishing to ocean health. It also addresses the challenges faced by decision makers and regional management bodies to tackle unregulated fishing on the high seas of the Indian Ocean within the context of a failure to date to sustainably manage this global commons. The study discusses two institutional features that contribute to unregulated fishing on the high seas of the Indian Ocean: the gaps in spatial areas of competence and the gaps between the groups of species covered by regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs).

This report analyzed the movements of carrier vessels operating in the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) Convention area in 2016. Through analysis of AIS data, the report identified carrier vessel voyage patterns and quantity, carrier vessels' flag state patterns, the spatial distribution of potential transshipment on the high seas, and the port visit locations by carrier and flag states. The report also found that many carrier vessels did not transponder on AIS, leading to significant gaps in data on unreported transshipment events. Ultimately, the WCPFC’s management of transshipment in its Convention area is compromised by a lack of reported information on transshipment, coupled with non-compliance with reporting requirements and non-standardized reporting responses by CCMs on carrier vessels and their activities.

Transshipment at sea is a practice where refrigerated cargo vessels, also known as reefers, meet with fishing boats to exchange catch, fresh water, food and crew. Transshipment can greatly extend the time a vessel can spend at sea fishing. However, it compromises the transparency pertaining to environmental and social sustainability within the seafood industry as catch, both legal and illegal, from several fishing vessels are mixed onboard the reefer. Satellite-based AIS data and published data on the distribution of tuna was used to map tuna presence, spawning areas, and diversity. This study aims to connect transshipment vessels and distribution patterns of seven tuna species by correlating tuna distribution and spawning grounds with reefer activity.

In this research study, Global Fishing Watch uses AIS information to identify where transshipment can be happening and who is doing it. About 42 percent of potential rendezvous (what is identified through AIS data to track transshipments) occur on the high seas, with the rest happening within the EEZs of different nations–especially Russia. It is concerning, however, that those areas with higher levels of reported IUU fishing correlate with areas of high potential rendezvous. With such a high level of transshipments occurring on high seas, the global community could not only benefit from using AIS data to identify illegal transshipments but must also cooperate to address lax oversight and control. This revised report improves on the methodology of the earlier finding in February 2017.

The Committee on Fisheries (COFI) undertook a global report on transshipment activities including the state of transshipment regulations and practices, guidance on specific control mechanisms for transshipment, and the state of independent monitoring and control over transshipment. The COFI held a workshop to overlook their report and the Global Stakeholder Survey responses they received from 91 States. The workshop concluded, among various other findings, that transshipment threatens the marine environment and human rights abuses without effective monitoring and control. However, the practice is an important cost-effective fishing operation and does not in itself pose a threat to what was previously discussed–further research must be done to see the extent of illicit transshipment operations.

This paper recognises seafood sustainability and human rights challenges associated with transshipment at sea
and seeks to identify global patterns in order to address these issues. Transshipment at sea, the offloading of catch from a fishing vessel to a refrigerated vessel far from port, can obscure the actual source of the catch. The authors analysed over 10,000 instances of fishing vessels loitering long enough to engage in transshipment of this, roughly 47% of the events occur on the high seas and 42% involve vessels flying flags of convenience.

In this research study, Global Fishing Watch uses AIS information to identify where transshipment can be happening and who is doing it. About 42 percent of potential rendezvous (what is identified through AIS data to track transshipments) occur on the high seas, with the rest happening within the EEZs of different nations–especially Russia. It is concerning, however, that those areas with higher levels of reported IUU fishing correlate with areas of high potential rendezvous. With such a high level of transshipments occurring on high seas, the global community could not only benefit from using AIS data to identify illegal transshipments but must also cooperate to address lax oversight and control.

This paper discusses the problem of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing on the high seas and acknowledges increasing restrictions put into place to attempt to deal with the problem. The paper reports on recent trends in the numbers of fishing vessels flying Flags of Convenience, discusses at-sea transshipment and resupply fleets (a key aspect of IUU fishing), recommends specific measures to manage at-sea transshipment and resupply and; place these recommendations within the context of international actions necessary to implement the UN FAO International Plan of Action on IUU Fishing.

Greenpeace undertook a research project to understand the extent of misuse of AIS by the global reefer industry. Greenpeace identified and studied 416 reefers that make up the majority of vessels that have transshipped at sea in the period 2017-2019. From these vessels, Greenpeace found multiple instances of violations of AIS, with proof in adopting 'flags of convenience' (most commonly, Panama), the behavior of vessel interactions with 'encounter' and 'loitering,' and transshipment in areas that are unregulated or pose a threat to marine habitats. The continued violations of AIS by reefers, according to Greenpeace, calls for a robust Global Ocean Treaty that will stop these harmful activities and protect our oceans.

This report discusses the threat of erroneous data available to MCS practitioners which can in turn lead to poor decision making, loss of credibility and potentially the loss of independent and worthy technological projects.

The authors of the report emphasise the need for accurate, reliable data and reporting with scrutiny from peers to prove rigorous analysis.

This paper summarises publicly available transshipment data to address the increasing number of high transshipment events occurring in the IOTC’s convention area. The report highlights the 94% increase in high seas transshipment between 2014 and 2018 the insufficient monitoring of transshipment activities and the current issues with and loopholes in Resolution 18-06 which reduce the effectiveness of the monitoring of transshipment activities.

The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) has seen staggering growth in transshipment activity within its Convention Area. Using publicly available information on transshipment
operations within the WCPF Convention Area, this report highlights the issues of inconsistent data from Observers, insufficient data sharing among the tRFMOs and recognises the need for additional management rules and data verification in order to maximise transparency and minimise the potential for IUU fish to be laundered into the market.

The Ports Task Force Ghana (PTFG) is working diligently to implement the National Strategy and Action Plan for the implementation of the 2009 FAO Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing and complimentary international instruments and mechanisms. They have identified the threats of allowing IUU fishing to move through their ports for what it does to local fisheries, the economy, and the country's people. Through a detailed course of action and various partnerships, PTFG will work to bring an end to vessels suspected of participating in IUU from entering Ghana's ports.

This paper presents a conceptual model for the analysis of the costs and benefit aspects of the risk inherent in illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) activity. The researchers use data to analyze the cost and benefit aspects of risks of IUU fishing. A key result of the study is that for the cases analyzed as a group; the expected benefits from IUU fishing far exceed the expected cost of being apprehended. For an assumed 1 in 5 chance of being apprehended, the researchers calculate that reported fines for the vessels apprehended will have to be increased by 24 times for the expected cost to be at least as much as the expected benefits.

The IUU fishing index was created to provide a benchmark for 152 coastal countries on their exposure and response to IUU fishing. With this benchmark, various parties (governments, RFMOs, donors) can recognize where intervention is needed. With the scores of each country divided by responsibility (coastal, flag, port, general) and type of action to combat IUU fishing (vulnerability, prevalence, response), the paper calculated a score for every coastal country. With this index as a benchmark, bodies around the world can begin to recognize where help is needed to combat IUU fishing and provide personalized responses, with well-performing countries serving as a point of comparison.

Mexico has access to an extensive coastline that has served the country by becoming a primary source of food and job creation. The increase in fisheries has also come at the cost of increasing corruption and a limited capacity for monitoring and enforcement resulting in significant IUU catch. Unreported and illegal fishing accounts for a high percentage of reported catch; this study aims to estimate unreported fisheries catches in Mexico from 1950 to 2010 through catch reconstructions. Results show that from 1950 to 2010, total fisheries catch was almost twice as high as the official statistics reported to the FAO. Knowing these figures, Mexico can move towards better managing their fish stock–specifically when it comes to bycatch and discards.

This report recommends the need for action in North Sumatra to tackle the continued and sometimes deadly conflicts between traditional fishing communities and trawlers. The authors explain the large increase in the number of trawlers in the 1970s and 1980s entering the 3-mile zone reserved for traditional fishing activities. These incursions by trawlers into the traditional fishing zone and the lack of government action is resulting in contact with tragic consequences.

This report discusses the rapid expansion of squid fishing in the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) Convention Area. The vessels appear to operate exclusively in the high seas, avoiding exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and therefore falling within an area beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ).
The area of operation, although physically within the area covered by the regional fisheries management organisation (RFMO), the IOTC, does not fall within its area of competence as only tuna and tuna like species are included within the IOTC mandate. The squid fishery presented in this report, based on analysis of data from January 2015 to April 2017 is therefore unregulated.
Squid are important prey for 12 predatory species including significant species such as bigeye tuna and swordfish. A clear understanding of sustainable yields is needed and management frameworks are required to sustainably manage this fishery.

In an extensive one-year research on Thailand's overseas fishing fleets, Greenpeace finds that many of Thailand's distant water fishing fleets participate in illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing. Despite the Thai government passing regulation in 2015 to control distant fishing fleets, Greenpeace uncovers multiple enduring human rights violations. Many of Thailand's companies, aided by large refrigerated vessels known as "reefers", are once again sailing at sea, continuing practices that lead to trafficking, fatalities, disease, and countless other human rights violations.